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研究與報(bào)告
康養(yǎng)百科研究與報(bào)告

【學(xué)術(shù)研究】男性對(duì)嗅覺刺激的性反應(yīng)

時(shí)間:2020-05-19 14:13:44     瀏覽量:2765     字號(hào):

男性對(duì)嗅覺刺激的性反應(yīng)

Alan R. Hirsch, M.D., F.A.C.P., and 

Jason J. Gruss

氣味和味覺治療研究基金會(huì),芝加哥伊利諾伊州

摘要:

民間的智慧認(rèn)為,各種香氣都可以吸引人。但沒有數(shù)據(jù)可證明特定氣味對(duì)喚醒的實(shí)際影響。

本研究報(bào)告通過比較30種不同氣味對(duì)31名男性志愿者的性喚起的影響,方法是通過戴有香味的口罩和戴無味的空白口罩對(duì)他們的陰莖血流量,肱動(dòng)脈陰莖指數(shù)的影響。

本研究選擇了在以前調(diào)查中發(fā)現(xiàn)的總體上令人滿意的氣味。每個(gè)都增加了一些陰莖血流量。薰衣草和南瓜派的混合氣味產(chǎn)生了最大的增長(40%)。多種機(jī)制可以調(diào)節(jié)這些影響。在增味劑的潛在應(yīng)用下,增加血管性陽痿的患者陰莖血流量值得研究。可能會(huì)減少陰莖血流量的氣味尚未發(fā)現(xiàn)可用于治療性變態(tài)者。


關(guān)鍵詞:氣味,性反應(yīng)


介紹

歷史上,某些氣味被認(rèn)為是壯陽藥,這是許多民間傳說和偽科學(xué)的主題。在龐貝的火山殘骸中,香水罐保存在為性關(guān)系而設(shè)的室內(nèi)。古埃及人沐浴時(shí)把精油作為指定用品;蘇美爾人用香水吸引她們的女人。在中國傳統(tǒng)儀式中,氣味和性吸引之間的關(guān)系得到了強(qiáng)調(diào),幾乎所有文化都在結(jié)婚儀式中使用了香水。

在神話中,玫瑰花瓣象征著芬芳,作品“deflowering” 描述了性行為的最初表現(xiàn)。 在文藝復(fù)興時(shí)期的意大利的流行即興喜劇Commedia dell'Arte穿著長鼻子面具,象征著他們的陽具稟賦,對(duì)傳統(tǒng)的沖擊一直不能消散。

神分析已經(jīng)在這些聯(lián)系中取得了很多進(jìn)展。佛里斯,在他的陰莖與鼻子的概念中,正式的描述了鼻子和陰莖之間的潛在聯(lián)系。(1)榮格心理學(xué)也將氣味和性鏈接起來。

在現(xiàn)代社會(huì)中,被用來商業(yè)推廣和使用的香水、古龍水以及須后水都充滿了浪漫誘惑的物品已經(jīng)產(chǎn)生了數(shù)十億美元的利益。(2)流行藝術(shù)也抓住了嗅覺和性之間的聯(lián)系。電影《a Woman portrays》描繪了氣味和性吸引在我們社會(huì)中的重要性,最近的小說《Perfumery》也如此。

在不同的歷史時(shí)期和文化中,氣味與性之間的特別聯(lián)系暗示著進(jìn)化重要性的高水平。弗洛依德(3)認(rèn)為,氣味是強(qiáng)烈的性情感誘因,以至于文明必須抑制氣味。

解剖學(xué)揭示了氣味和性別之間的聯(lián)系:大腦中嗅覺的區(qū)域,嗅覺是邊緣系統(tǒng)的一部分,即情感性大腦(4),是性思想和性愛產(chǎn)生的區(qū)域。(5)布里爾(6)談到人們親吻以使鼻子緊貼在一起,以便彼此嗅到(the Eskimo kiss)?;蛘咚麄兛赡軙?huì)親吻以使嘴巴合在一起,以便彼此品嘗,因?yàn)槲覀兯^的味覺大部分取決于嗅覺。(7)

在討論氣味和性愛時(shí),我們必須從鳥類和蜜蜂開始。傳統(tǒng)上,蜜蜂,飛蛾和其他昆蟲會(huì)釋放出信息素,這些信息是吸引異性的霧化氣味。(8)雌性飛蛾可以將信息素釋放到空氣中,從而吸引一公里內(nèi)的雄性,從而增強(qiáng)了她的繁殖能力。同樣,信息素在不僅在昆蟲,乃至亞人類靈長類和靈長類屬(9)中都存在,遍布了整個(gè)動(dòng)物界,對(duì)物種進(jìn)化具有重要意義。目前尚不清楚人類信息素是否存在,但理論基礎(chǔ)支持它們的存在,因?yàn)檎麄€(gè)動(dòng)物界中存在的結(jié)構(gòu)似乎也可能存在于人類中。在人腦內(nèi)部,靠近鼻子頂部的是一個(gè)解剖學(xué)特征,這使我們有理由相信人類信息素存在:犁鼻器。(10)它的功能未知,但是在亞人類靈長類動(dòng)物中,這是信息素起作用的區(qū)域以增加繁殖機(jī)會(huì)。這是人類犁骨蛋白結(jié)合的地方。(11)(12)

當(dāng)我們運(yùn)動(dòng)時(shí),我們會(huì)通過內(nèi)分泌腺出汗。(13)但是當(dāng)我們感到尷尬或性興奮時(shí),我們會(huì)通過頂泌腺出汗,這些頂腺會(huì)在腋下和生殖器周圍釋放高密度的類固醇(14);它們的角色是未知的。在亞人類的靈長類動(dòng)物中,相同的頂泌腺釋放信息素。(14)如果這些腺體在人類中的功能類似,這可能解釋了為什么當(dāng)女人高舉手臂露出腋窩時(shí),她的手勢被認(rèn)為具有性挑釁性;“這個(gè)迷人的洞穴充滿了有趣的驚喜?!?nbsp;(13)

氣味在性興奮中的重要性在生理學(xué)證據(jù)有兩個(gè)方面:第一,在性興奮期間,鼻子充血會(huì)引起渦流的發(fā)展(像小龍卷風(fēng)一樣)。然后,由于較少的空氣直接進(jìn)入肺(15),所以更多的信息素或性引誘劑可以到達(dá)嗅覺上皮(16),并且氣味更加尖銳。在性興奮時(shí)從嘴里呼吸是鼻部充血的證據(jù),并能最大限度地與興奮劑和信息素接觸。其次,女性的嗅覺能力(通常比男性(16-19歲)好)在排卵過程中達(dá)到頂峰,也許可以檢測到存在的任何信息素。此時(shí)嗅覺能力增強(qiáng)可以解釋為什么排卵期女性傾向于有更多的性經(jīng)歷。可能會(huì)增加嗅覺刺激,促使性活動(dòng)增加。(20)

臨床觀察支持人類信息素的存在,這表現(xiàn)為大學(xué)室友效應(yīng)(21-22)。同一宿舍的女生到了青春期以后開始有生理月經(jīng),經(jīng)過一段時(shí)間以后,同一宿舍的女生的來月經(jīng)的日期都會(huì)很相近。這表明一個(gè)女人釋放的信息素可能會(huì)以主導(dǎo)的方式夾帶其他女人。婦女在一起工作的小型辦公室中也存在同樣的現(xiàn)象。

作為信息素存在的進(jìn)一步證據(jù),要求男性大學(xué)生對(duì)戴著無味或假定的女性信息素(雄甾酮)的口罩時(shí)女性的照片進(jìn)行評(píng)分。戴著假面罩的女性信息素的男人比起戴無味口罩的男人,她們看上去更友好,更漂亮(23)。

在英格蘭學(xué)習(xí)期間,假定的男性信息素被放置在教室的某些桌子下面;然后連續(xù)拍攝照片以監(jiān)控學(xué)生的坐姿。女學(xué)生傾向于坐在假定的雄性信息素所在的課桌旁(24)。當(dāng)被問及為什么坐在那里時(shí),女孩們說:“這似乎像是坐在正確的地方。”

信息素不僅可能是性吸引劑,而且可能是領(lǐng)土標(biāo)記,例如,狗通過在院子里排尿來確立其統(tǒng)治地位(25)。在對(duì)男子大學(xué)宿舍的研究中,將假定的男性信息素放置在特定的廁所隔間下面,然后對(duì)其進(jìn)行監(jiān)控(24)。男人傾向于避開假定的雄性信息素所在的坑位,這似乎暗示著這種氣味具有領(lǐng)土標(biāo)記的作用。

這些實(shí)驗(yàn)當(dāng)然不能證明存在人類信息素。然而,香水公司推銷對(duì)信息素的解釋,信息素通常含有麝香,即雄性麝香的信息素?,旣惿彙っ赘裉m(Marilyn Miglan)將香水命名為“費(fèi)洛蒙(Pheromone)”,但其香味是花香的混合物(26)。

各種文化偏愛各種氣味。在美國,女性通常會(huì)剪下腋毛,因?yàn)樗齻冋J(rèn)為這種體味被是不干凈的。但是在東歐,這種氣味被認(rèn)為具有性刺激性,并且腋下毛囊是留給處女的。Alex Comfort稱它為女人的花束(27)。

醫(yī)學(xué)證據(jù)將氣味和性反應(yīng)聯(lián)系起來。在一項(xiàng)研究中,超過17%的嗅覺缺陷患者出現(xiàn)了性功能障礙(28)。

嗅覺和性功能之間無疑存在關(guān)系。然而,其機(jī)制尚待發(fā)現(xiàn)。在本實(shí)驗(yàn)中,我們調(diào)查了環(huán)境嗅覺刺激對(duì)人類男性性反應(yīng)的影響。


方法

參加者

通過經(jīng)典搖滾電臺(tái)廣播征集招募了具有英語素養(yǎng)的受試者。31名年齡在18至64歲之間的男性自愿參加了這項(xiàng)活動(dòng)。

措施

所有受試者進(jìn)行嗅覺測試與賓夕法尼亞大學(xué)氣味鑒別試驗(yàn)(UPSIT),共40項(xiàng),被迫選擇,劃痕和嗅氣味鑒別試驗(yàn)(29)和芝加哥嗅覺測試,三個(gè)氣味檢測和鑒定試驗(yàn)(30-32 )。他們被問及性偏愛,性行為和氣味快感。

在實(shí)驗(yàn)過程中,根據(jù)制造商的規(guī)定(34),使用Floscope Ultra氣胸鏡檢查儀測定肱的陰莖指數(shù)(33),以測定受試者的性喚起程度。使用該儀器,可以測量陰莖和肱動(dòng)脈血壓,并計(jì)算它們的比率,從而控制全身作用。這允許對(duì)陰莖血流進(jìn)行特定的非侵入性評(píng)估。

步驟

選擇了24種不同的氣味,根據(jù)先前調(diào)查中總體上為享樂主意的男性進(jìn)行此項(xiàng)研究。此外,從其中最受好評(píng)的2組中選擇了6種組合。通過比較戴有氣味的面罩的受試者的肱動(dòng)脈陰莖指數(shù)與戴著無味空白面罩的受試者的平均指數(shù)來評(píng)估30種氣味對(duì)陰莖血流的影響。針對(duì)每個(gè)對(duì)象針對(duì)每種氣味進(jìn)行此操作。

對(duì)受試者進(jìn)行如下評(píng)估:將其陰莖在體積描記器上之后,讓其適應(yīng)三分鐘,然后戴空白對(duì)照面罩一分鐘,并記錄肱動(dòng)脈的陰莖指數(shù)。然后除去空白面罩,換上添加香氣的面罩。因此,以雙盲方式隨機(jī)施用30個(gè)加香氣的口罩,面罩之間間隔3分鐘以防止對(duì)氣味的習(xí)慣。每個(gè)面罩戴一分鐘,記錄肱動(dòng)脈指數(shù)。最后,再加一個(gè)空白面膜一分鐘,并再次記錄肱動(dòng)脈指數(shù)。

統(tǒng)計(jì)分析

統(tǒng)計(jì)顯著性由ap值<= 0.05定義。數(shù)據(jù)分析包括以下非參數(shù)檢驗(yàn):符號(hào)秩檢驗(yàn),Wilcoxan秩和檢驗(yàn)和Spearman秩相關(guān)系數(shù)(35-36)。


結(jié)果


結(jié)果

所有受試者都住在芝加哥或郊區(qū)。大多數(shù)(77%)是單身,平均年齡為30歲,中位年齡為29歲,范圍為18至64歲。大多數(shù)(87%)是異性戀,有規(guī)律的性伴侶(74%),在實(shí)驗(yàn)前的30天內(nèi)有四次性交,并認(rèn)為他們的性生活還算令人滿意(表1)。

為了評(píng)估其生理勃起功能,要求受試者以1(不存在)至5(每天早晨)的等級(jí)來評(píng)估早晨勃起的頻率。他們的中位反應(yīng)為3(表1)。大多數(shù)(84%)表示他們從未經(jīng)歷過氣味誘發(fā)的勃起(表1)。

受試者的嗅覺特征示于表II。UPSIT分?jǐn)?shù)是根據(jù)已發(fā)布的年齡和性別規(guī)范進(jìn)行分級(jí)的。鑒于這些,52%的受試者得分是正常的,48%的得分是微觀的,即低體(嗅覺敏感性不足)或厭氧(無嗅覺)。超過一半的受試者(55%)經(jīng)歷了氣味誘發(fā)的回憶,這是一種香氣觸發(fā)記憶和相關(guān)感覺的現(xiàn)象(37)。超過一半(61%)是不吸煙者。大多數(shù)(71%)使用古龍水,在那些有定期性伴侶的人中,有83%的伴侶使用了香水。

氣味對(duì)陰莖血流的影響

30種氣味中的每一種都會(huì)增加陰莖血流量(表III)。薰衣草和南瓜餅的混合氣味效果最大,使陰莖血流量中值增加了40%。其次是黑色甘草和甜甜圈的組合,使中位數(shù)陰莖血流量增加了31.5%。南瓜派和甜甜圈的總氣味排在第三位,增加了20%。最少刺激的是蔓越莓,它使陰莖血流量增加了2%。沒有氣味減少陰莖血流量。

嗅覺低于正常的男性與嗅覺正常的男性無顯著差異,吸煙者與不吸煙者也無顯著差異。然而,在嗅覺能力正常的受試者中,有幾個(gè)相關(guān)性是顯著的:較高的肱動(dòng)脈陰莖指數(shù)與年齡越大,對(duì)香草味的反應(yīng)越大有關(guān)(p = 0.05);自我評(píng)估的性滿意度水平與對(duì)草莓氣味的更大反應(yīng)相關(guān)(p = 0.05);性交的頻率和頻率與對(duì)薰衣草(p = 0.03),東方香料(p = 0.02)和可樂(p = 0.03)的氣味有更大的反應(yīng)相關(guān)。

討論區(qū)

我們假設(shè)提升快感的性氣味,因?yàn)樗鼈兙哂衅渌袨橛绊懀?8-40),會(huì)增加陰莖的血流量。我們的數(shù)據(jù)支持這一假設(shè)。

存在多種可能發(fā)生這種情況的機(jī)制。這些氣味可能引起巴甫洛夫式的條件反應(yīng),使受試者想起他們的性伴侶或他們最喜歡的食物(41)。在美國長大的人中,烘焙食品的氣味最容易誘發(fā)一種被稱為嗅覺誘發(fā)的回憶的狀態(tài)(37)。在當(dāng)前的研究中,氣味可能引起懷舊的回憶,并伴有積極的情緒狀態(tài),從而影響了陰莖的血流(38-40)。或者氣味可能只是放松。在另一些研究中,薰衣草向后增加阿爾法波,這種作用與放松狀態(tài)有關(guān)(42-43)。在焦慮減輕的情況下,可以消除抑制作用,從而增加陰莖血流量。

已經(jīng)顯示出茉莉花的氣味在正面增加了β波,這與機(jī)敏有關(guān)(42)。可能的氣味可能會(huì)喚醒網(wǎng)狀激活系統(tǒng),使受試者對(duì)任何性暗示更加警覺,從而增加了陰莖的血流量。

氣味的另一種可能是神經(jīng)生理作用。MacLean(5)證明,刺激松鼠猴的中隔核可引起勃起。一條直接的途徑將嗅球連接到中隔核(44),因此,從解剖學(xué)上看,氣味可能會(huì)影響中隔核以誘導(dǎo)勃起并增加陰莖血流量,這在解剖學(xué)上是正確的。這似乎在我們的研究中很有可能,因?yàn)樵谡麄€(gè)實(shí)驗(yàn)過程中睡著的一位受試者對(duì)熏衣草和南瓜派的混合氣味顯示出最大的陰莖血流量增加。

我們懷疑是直接的生理機(jī)制,但是我們不能排除氣味對(duì)睡眠中受試者夢境的可能影響,也許是夢境含量影響了陰莖血流。

通過隔核刺激,氣味可能會(huì)增加攻擊性。陰莖血流量的增加可能是誘發(fā)侵略的“鄰里效應(yīng)”的量度,而不是直接的性興奮(45)。

我們也不能排除廣義的副交感神經(jīng)作用,它增加了陰莖血流量而不是特定的性興奮(46)。為此,我們通過測量與陰莖血流同時(shí)發(fā)生的肱動(dòng)脈血壓來控制這一情況。

在我們的實(shí)驗(yàn)中,影響陰莖血液流動(dòng)的特定氣味主要是食物氣味。更直接地,Rediwhip(c)已被用于女性生殖器,再次表明性別,食物和氣味之間有很強(qiáng)的關(guān)系。這是否支持這一理論,即通往男人心臟(和性愛)的途徑是通過他的胃?進(jìn)化假設(shè)解釋了為什么會(huì)這樣。一次成功的狩獵之后,原始部落的人們聚集在食物周圍(47)。在那里,也許他們擁有最多的機(jī)會(huì)。因此,響應(yīng)食物氣味而增加的陰莖血流量將是一個(gè)優(yōu)勢。關(guān)于黑猩猩的最新發(fā)現(xiàn)-當(dāng)他們發(fā)現(xiàn)豐富的食物來源時(shí),他們?cè)谶M(jìn)食前就停止了性行為,也許是為了減少對(duì)食物的爭執(zhí),這為食物與性之間的關(guān)聯(lián)提供了另一種解釋(48)。

人類可以檢測到大約10,000種氣味(8)。研究表明,它們中的許多會(huì)影響行為,即某些花香可以增強(qiáng)學(xué)習(xí)(49)和購買行為(50)。青蘋果的氣味可能會(huì)減輕幽閉恐懼感(51),燒烤煙可能會(huì)引起飛行反應(yīng)(51),吸入某些食物氣味可能有助于減輕體重(52)。除本研究中檢查的氣味外,其他氣味可能會(huì)對(duì)陰莖血流產(chǎn)生更大的影響。

嗅覺會(huì)影響性反射弧;如前所述,人類信息素是通過直接的嗅覺-邊緣相互聯(lián)系觸發(fā)性反應(yīng)的,是推測性的(53-55)。陰莖勃起是衡量男性性刺激的一種手段(56),是邊緣系統(tǒng)中隔核和嗅覺纖維末端器官流出的一種表現(xiàn)(57)。根據(jù)自主神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)的功能(58),陰莖充血由穿過陰部動(dòng)脈和較小動(dòng)脈至陰莖的動(dòng)脈血流控制。性興奮的第一個(gè)物理跡象是陰莖血流量的變化。進(jìn)入陰莖的血液隨著性興奮而增加,而由于性抑制而減少(59)。

我們當(dāng)然不能認(rèn)為實(shí)驗(yàn)中的氣味是人類信息素,因此我們認(rèn)為它們是通過信息素以外的其他途徑起作用的,而信息素被認(rèn)為會(huì)對(duì)大腦產(chǎn)生內(nèi)分泌作用。假定的信息素,雄烯醇(一種高密度的類固醇)對(duì)內(nèi)分泌系統(tǒng)的作用非常緩慢(60)。與假定的信息素不同,影響陰莖血流的氣味會(huì)立即作用于大腦或產(chǎn)生即時(shí)的心理影響。

這些初步數(shù)據(jù)表明,將氣味作為治療手段有潛在的用途。陽痿,有10%至15%的案例是器質(zhì)性的,最常見的原因是血管性勃起功能障礙,通常是由糖尿病引起的(57-61)。當(dāng)前的調(diào)查應(yīng)確定無創(chuàng)氣味治療是否可以增強(qiáng)糖尿病患者的陰莖血流量。

盡管我們沒有發(fā)現(xiàn)減少陰莖血液流動(dòng)的氣味,但我們推測可能會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)這種氣味,可能是具有非常負(fù)面的抑制性氣味的三叉神經(jīng)興奮劑。這種氣味可以用來減少性戀者(如戀童癖者)的陰莖血流量,作為其適應(yīng)或厭惡訓(xùn)練的一部分。

雖然我們僅研究男性受試者,但無疑會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)類似的氣味會(huì)影響女性。正在進(jìn)行陰道血流的平行研究。


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附表


附表1、31名男性受試者的性別特征

附表2、氣味特征

附表3、各種氣味對(duì)31位受試者產(chǎn)生的陰莖血流量增加







文章來源:美國神經(jīng)外科和骨科醫(yī)師學(xué)會(huì)

翻譯:互聯(lián)網(wǎng)


英文原稿

Smell and Taste Treatment Research Foundation, Chicago, Illinois

Abstract: Folk wisdom has it that various aromas are sexually enticing but no data exists demonstrating actual effects of specific odors on arousal. The
present study reports the effects of 30 different scents on sexual arousal of 31 male volunteers by comparing their penile blood flow, measured b brachial penile index, while wearing scented masks and while wearing nonodorized, blank masks. Odors found generally pleasant in previous surveys were selected for this study. Each produced some increase in penile blood flow; the combined odor of lavender and pumpkin pie produced the greatest increase (40%). A multitude of mechanisms may mediate these effects. A potential application of odorants to increase penile blood flow in patients with vasculogenic impotence deserves study. Odors that may decrease penile blood flow have yet to be found for possible use in treating sexual deviants.

Key Words: Odors, Sexual Response

Introduction

Historically, certain smells have been considered aphrodisiacs, a subject of much folklore and pseudoscience. In the volcanic remnants of Pompeii, perfume jars were preserved in the chambers designed for sexual relations. Ancient Egyptians bathed with essential oils in preparation for assignations; Sumarians seduced their women with perfumes. A relationship between smell and sexual attraction is emphasized in traditional Chinese rituals, and virtually all cultures have used perfume in their marriage rites. In mythology, rose petals symbolized scent, and the work “deflowering” describes the initial act of sex. Farcical stock characters in the popular Italian Commedia dell’Arte of the Renaissance wore long-nose masks to symbolize their phallic endowment, a tradition that lingers in the figure of Punch. Dramatic literature abounds with sly references to nasal size as symbolic of phallic size, as in the famous play Cyrano De Bergerac.

Psychoanalysis has made much of these associations. Fliess, in his concept of the phallic nose, formally described an underlying link between the nose and the phallus.(1) Jungian psychology also connects odors and sex.

In the modern world the pervasive promoting and use of perfumes, colognes and after-shaves as romantic enticements have produced a multibillion dollar business.(2) And the popular arts as well have seized on the theme linking olfaction and sex. The movie Scent of a Woman portrays the importance of smell and sexual attraction in our society, as does the recent novel Perfumery.

The prominent connection between odors and sex among diverse historical periods and cultures implies a high level of evolutionary importance. Freud (3) suggested that odors are such strong inducers of sexual feelings that repression of smell sensations is necessary to civilization.

Anatomy bears out the link between smells and sex: the area of the brain through which we experience smells, the olfactory lobe, is part of the limbic system, the emotional brain (4), the area through which sexual thoughts and desires are derived. (5) Brill (6) suggests that people kiss to get their noses close together, so that they can smell each other (the Eskimo kiss). Or possibly they kiss to get their mouths together so they can taste each other since most of what we call taste is dependent upon olfaction.(7)

In discussing odors and sex we must begin with the birds and the bees. Classically, bees, moths, and other insects are known to release pheromones, aerosolized odorants that attract the opposite sex.(8) A female moth can release a pheromone into the air that attracts a male s far as a mile away, enhancing her changes of procreation. Similarly, pheromones exist throughout the animal kingdom in insect, subhuman primate, and primate genera (9) to the evolutionary benefit of the species. Whether human pheromones exist is unclear, but theoretic grounds support their presence, since structures that exist throughout the animal kingdom seem likely to be present in humans as well. Inside the human brain, near the top of the nose is an anatomical feature that gives us reason to believe that human pheromones exist: the vomeronasal organ. (10) Its function is unknown, but in subhuman primates, this is the area where pheromones act to increase the chance of procreation. This is where human vomeropherins bind. (11) (12)

When we exercise, we sweat through endocrine glands. (13) But when we are embarrassed or sexually excited, we sweat through apocrine glands that release high-density steroids (14) under the arms and around the genitalia; their role is unknown. In subhuman primates, the same apocrine glands release pheromones. (14) If these glands function similarly in humans, this might explain why when a woman raises her arms to her head exposing her axillae, her gesture is considered sexually provocative; “this charming grotto is full on intriguing surprises.” (13)

Physiologic evidence of the importance of odors in sexual excitation is two-fold: First, during sexual excitation, engorgement of the nose induces development of eddy currents (like small tornadoes). Then, since less of the air goes directly to the lungs (15), more pheromones or sexual attractants can reach the olfactory epithelium (16) and smell is more acute. Breathing from the mouth during sexual excitation is evidence of nasal engorgement and maximizes contact with stimulants and pheromones. Second, olfactory ability in women, generally better than that of men (16-19) is at its peak during ovulation, perhaps to detect any pheromones present. Increased olfactory ability at this time may explain why periovulatory women tend to have more sexual experiences. Possibly increased olfactory stimulation prompts an increase in sexual activity. (20)

Clinical observation supports the existence of pheromones in humans, as manifested by college roommate effect (21-22). Women who move into all-women’s dormitory halls have, by mid-term, synchronized their ovulating cycles with the other women in the hall. This indicates that a pheromone released by one woman may entrain the others in a pattern of dominance. The same phenomenon exists in small offices where women work together.

As further evidence of pheromones’ existence, male college students were asked to rate pictures of women while wearing masks either with no odor or with a postulated female pheromone (androsterone). The men with postulated female pheromone in their masks described the women as appearing friendlier and prettier than did those wearing unodorized masks (23).

During a study in England, a possible male pheromone was placed beneath certain desks in a classroom; then pictures were taken continually to monitor where students sat. Female students tended to sit near the desks where the postulated male pheromone was placed (24). Asked why they sat there, the girls said “it just seemed like the right place to sit.”

Pheromones may be not only sexual attractants, but also territorial markers, e.g., a dog establishes dominance in his yard by urinating there (25). In a study of a men’s college dormitory room, a postulated male pheromone was placed beneath specific toilet stalls which were then monitored (24). Men tended to avoid the stalls where the postulated male pheromone was placed, which seems suggestive that the scent had the effect of a territorial marker.

These experiments, of course, do not prove human pheromones exist. Yet perfume companies market their interpretations of pheromones, often containing musk, a pheromone of the male musk deer. Marilyn Miglan named a perfume “Pheromone,” however its scent is a floral mixture (26).

Various cultures favor various odors. In the U.S., women cut their axillary hair because this bodily smell is considered unclean. But in Eastern Europe, the smell is considered sexually provocative, and the axillary follicles are left virginal. Alex Comfort calls it the woman’s bouquet (27).

Medical evidence links smell and sexual response. In one study, over 17 percent of patients with olfactory deficits had developed a sexual dysfunction (28).

A relationship undoubtedly exists between the olfactory and sexual functions; its mechanism, however, remains to be discovered. In the present experiment, we investigate the impact of ambient olfactory stimuli upon sexual response in the human male.

Method

Participants

Subjects literate in English were recruited through solicitation on classic rock radio broadcasts. Thirty-one males, aged 18 to 6 years volunteered.

Measures

All subjects underwent olfactory testing with the University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test (UPSIT), a 40 item, forced choice, scratch and sniff odor identification test (29) and the Chicago Smell Test, a three odorant detection and identification test (30-32). They were queried as to sexual preference, sexual practices, and odor hedonics.

During the experiment, subjects’ sexual arousal was determined using the brachial penile index (33) with the Floscope Ultra Pneumoplethymosgraph following manufacturer’s protocol (34). With this instrument, both penile and brachial blood pressures were measured and their ratio calculated, hence controlling for systemic effects. This allowed specific noninvasive assessment of penile blood flow.

Procedure

Twenty-four different odorants were chosen for this study based on their generally positive hedonics in previous surveys. In addition, 6 combinations of 2 of the most well-liked of these were chosen. The effects of the 30 odors on penile blood flow were assessed by comparing a subject’s brachial penile index while wearing an odorized mask to his average index while wearing an unodorized blank mask. This was done for each subject for each odor.

Subjects underwent assessment as follows: after being attached to the plethysmograph, three minutes were allowed for acclimation, then a blank control mask was applied for one minute and brachial penile index recorded. The blank mask was then removed and an odorized mask applied. Thus 30 odorized masks were randomly applied in double-blind fashion, with a three minute hiatus between masks to prevent habituation to the odors. Each mask was worn for one minute and brachial penile index recorded. Finally, an additional blank mask was applied for one minute and brachial penile index again recorded.

Statistical Analysis

Statistical significance is defined by a p value <=0.05. Data analysis includes these nonparametric tests: Signed Rank test, Wilcoxan Rank Sum test, and Spearman's Rank correlation coefficient (35-36).

Results

Results

All subjects lived in Chicago or suburbs. Most (77%) were single and their mean age was 30 years, median 29 years with a range of 18 to 64 years. Most (87%) were heterosexual, had a regular sex partner (74%), had intercourse four times in the 30-day period just prior to the experiment and considered their sex lives fairly satisfactory (Table 1).

To assess their physiologic erectile function, subjects were asked to rate the frequency of their morning erections on a scale of 1 (absent) to 5 (every morning). Their median response was 3 (Table 1). Most (84%) stated that they had never experienced an odor-induced erection (Table 1).

Subjects’ olfactory characteristics are shown on Table II. UPSIT scores were graded based on published norms for age and sex. Given these, 52% of subjects scores were normal and 48% were microsmic, i.e., hyposmic (deficient in odor sensitivity) or anosmic (without a sense of smell). Over half the subjects (55%) had experienced odor-evoked recall, a phenomenon wherein an aroma triggers memories and associated feelings (37). More than half (61%) were nonsmokers. Most (71%) used cologne, and of those who had a regular sex partner, 83% of the partners used scent.

Effects of Odors on Penile Blood Flow

Each of the 30 odors produced an increase in penile blood flow (Table III). The combined odor of lavender and pumpkin pie had the greatest effect, increasing median penile-blood flow by 40%. Second in effectiveness was the combination of black licorice and doughnut, which increased the median penile-blood flow 31.5%. The combined odors of pumpkin pie and doughnut was third, with a 20% increase. Least stimulating was cranberry, which increased penile blood flow by 2%. None of the odors reduced penile-blood flow.

Men with below normal olfaction did not differ significantly from those with normal olfaction, nor did smokers differ significantly from nonsmokers. However, among subjects with normal olfactory ability, several correlations are significant: higher brachial penile indices correlate with greater age and with greater responses to the odor of vanilla (p=0.05); self-assessed level of sexual satisfaction correlates with greater responses to the odor of strawberry (p=0.05); and frequency of sexual intercourse correlates with greater responses to the odors of lavender (p=0.03), oriental spice (p=0.02) and cola (p=0.03).

Discussion

We hypothesized that hedonically positive odors, since they have other behavioral effects (38-40), would increase penile blood flow. Our data support this hypothesis.

A multitude of mechanisms exist by which this might occur. The odors could induce a Pavlovian conditioned response reminding subjects of their sexual partners or their favorite foods (41). Among persons raised in the United States, odors of baked goods are most apt to induce a state called olfactory-evoked recall (37). Possibly, odors in the current study evoked a nostalgic recall with an associated positive mood state that affected penile blood flow (38-40). Or the odors may simply be relaxing. In others studies, lavender, which increased alpha waves posteriorly, an effect associated with a relaxed state (42-43). In a condition of reduced anxiety, inhibitions may be removed and thus penile blood flow increased.

It has been shown that the odor of jasmine increases beta waves frontally, which is associated with alertness (42). Possibly odors may awaken the reticular activating system, making subjects more alert to any sexual cues, thus increasing penile blood flow.

Another possibility, odors may act neurophysiologically. MacLean (5) demonstrated that stimulation of the septal nucleus in the squirrel monkey induces erection. A direct pathway connects the olfactory bulb to the septal nucleus (44), hence, it seems anatomically correct that odor could impact upon the septal nucleus to induce erection with increased penile blood flow. This seems a strong possibility in our study, since the one subject who slept through the entire experiment showed the greatest increase in penile-blood flow in response to the combined odors of lavender and pumpkin pie.

We suspect a direct physiologic mechanism, yet we cannot rule out a possible impact of odors upon the dreams of the subject who slept through the experiment, perhaps with his dream content influencing penile blood flow.

Possibly odors can increase aggression, through septal nucleus stimulation. Increased penile-blood flow may be a measure of a “neighborhood effect” of induced aggression rather than direct sexual excitation (45).

Nor can we rule out a generalized parasympathetic effect, increasing penile blood flow rather than specific sexual excitation (46). As much as possible, we controlled for this by measuring brachial blood pressure coincident with penile blood flow.

The specific odors that affected penile blood flow in our experiment were primarily food odors. More directly, Rediwhip (c) has been used perigenitally, again indicating a strong relationship between sex, food and smell. Does this support the axiom that the way to a man’s heart (and sexual affection) is through his stomach? An evolutionary hypothesis explains why this may be so. After a successful hunt, humans in primitive tribes congregated around the food (47). There, perhaps they had most opportuni-ties to procreate. An increase in penile-blood flow in response to food odors, then would be an advantage. A recent finding about the Bonobos-that when they found a plentiful food source they stopped to have sex before they ate, perhaps to reduce quarreling over food-provides another explanation for the association between food and sex (48).

Humans can detect approximately 10,000 odors (8). Studies indicate that many of them affect behavior, i.e., certain floral smells can enhance learning (49) and buying behavior (50); green apple odor may ease claustrophobic feelings (51), barbecue smoke may induce a flight response (51) and inhaling certain food odors may help effect weight loss (52). Odors other than those examined in this study could possibly have a greater effect on penile-blood flow.

Olfactory sensation can influence the sexual reflex arc; as mentioned, human pheromones, which trigger sexual response through direct olfactory-limbic interconnections, are speculative (53-55). Penile erection, the measure of male sexual arousal (56) is a manifestation of outflow from the septal nuclei within the limbic system, and end organ for olfactory fibers (57). As a function of of the autonomic nervous system (58), penile engorgement is controlled by arterial flow through the pudendal artery and the smaller arteries to the penis. The first physical sign of sexual excitation is a change in penile-blood flow. Blood flow to the penis increases with sexual excitement and decreases with sexual inhibition (59).

We certainly cannot consider the odors in our experiment to be human pheromones, therefore we believe they acted through other pathways than do pheromones, which are thought to cause an endocrinologic effect upon the brain. A postulated pheromone, androstenol, a high-density steroid, is said to act very slowly on the endocrine system (60). Odors that affect penile-blood flow act immediately on the brain or have an immediate psychological effect, unlike the postulated pheromones.

These preliminary data suggest potential uses of odors as a treatment modality. Impotence, in 10-15% of cases, is organic, the most common cause being vaculogenic, usually due to diabetes (57-61). Current investigations should determine whether noninvasive treatment with odors can enhance penile blood flow in diabetes.

Although we found no odor to reduce penile blood flow, we hypothesized that such an odor might be found, possibly a trigeminal stimulant with a very negatively hedonic odor. Such an odor might be utilized to decrease penile blood flow in sex offenders, such as pedophiles, as part of their deconditioning or aversion training.

While we studied only male subjects, undoubtedly analogous odors might be found to affect women. Parallel studies of vaginal blood flow are being undertaken.

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